Emperor of the republic

Editor’s note: This entry is the fourth in a series on Napoleon. BIH recommends reading the previous entries, A brand apart, Rise of the little corporal, and The return of Caesar prior to this one. They review the origin story of the young Napoleon, and then explore his development as a leader and strategist.

Napoléon as first consul, J. A. Ingres 1804.

Napoleon was anything but stupid. He knew that being dictator, while not in name but in position due to the Constitution of Year VIII, was completely dependent on the support of the masses. After all, the whole reason he was leading France was because of an uprising against the monarchy eight years earlier. Indeed, Napoleon started out as a republican supporter. Just because he was "First Consul" didn't mean that, in effect, one monarchy hadn't replaced another. Caution was a watchword for Napoleon. What he needed was French unity, and either real or imagined would do.

One political strategy Napoleon resorted to was holding regular elections with the French people. If there was a big question or issue, he essentially polled the French electorate. That's how he ratified the new constitution, although there were shenanigans with vote tallies. It's pretty well known that Napoleon's brother, Lucien, adjusted the returns doubling the actual vote to 3 million people having cast ballots when half that was more likely.

Keep in mind that while France was trying to heal herself from eight years of revolution, not to mention substantial interference from outside monarchies, the rest of Europe remained at war throughout 1800. What's more, by invading and occupying Italy, Austria reneged on the treaty it negotiated with Napoleon a few years earlier. As a result, Napoleon led his troops across the Alps into Italy.

Hodder & Stoughton, 1912

Marching an army over the Alps is not easy. The mountain range is very rugged, cold, and altogether inhospitable to an army on foot. Hannibal Barca knew this from his crossing a few thousand years ago, losing nearly half his men in the effort. But he had Celts ambushing him, adding to losses from the cold. Napoleon had no such problem. So while difficult, Napoleon and his troops managed to enter the plains of northern Italy—surprisingly unopposed by Austrian elements. The Austrian expedition into Italy, it seemed, hit snag even before Napoleon arrived.

There was a French army element stationed in Genoa, a city on the western coast of where Italy meets the European mainland. The French contingent in Genoa occupied the attention of Austrian forces, giving Napoleon time to get into Italy. It didn't take long for the two sides to find and engage each other. Actually, Austrian forces surprised the French, and while effective at first, the tide turned to Napoleon's favor. It's no wonder. He made sure his lines never broke, even during tactical retreats. Napoleon would ride among his troops, inspiring them to stand and fight. And then there was Napoleon's expert use of artillery, which had its intended impact. By the end of the action, Austria was down 14,000 casualties and had agreed to once again leave Italy.

The fly in the peace ointment was that the whole confrontation in Italy did little to settle the territorial dispute with Austria. Apparently Britain was the fly, conspiring with Austrians against the French. As a result, Napoleon decided hit Austria hard, plowing through Bavaria and securing a firm victory by December 1800. Two months later, he forced Austria to sign a treaty that, in effect, left Britain standing alone in a war with France. And within a year of that, Britain agreed to a treaty. By the spring of 1802, Europe was finally at peace.

Big victories have a habit of making leaders very popular, and Napoleon's win against Austria (again) made him even more so. Add to that the treaty between France and Britain, and Napoleon earned unprecedented popularity, not just among his own people, but also Europeans in general. The fighting was over. In 1802, the French people overwhelmingly voted to approve another constitution that made the Consulate permanent, and essentially making Napoleon dictator for life. But things wouldn't stay calm for long.

Coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David in 1804.

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